Consider the following sentences:
kana nizam-u al-barid-i ghayra maʿrufin, wa-lamma jaʾa Muʿawiya bn Abi Sufyan anshaʾa-hu wa-nazzama-hu
— The postal system was unknown; when Muʿawiya ibn Abi Sufyan came, he established and organized it.
bata al-dayf-u shabʿan-an
— The guest spent the night satiated.
yasir-u al-hilal-u badran
— The crescent becomes a full moon.
zalla al-dabab-u kathifan
— The fog stayed thick.
You will notice, dear readers, that these sentences are preceded by past-tense verbs: kana, bata, zalla — and also by a present-tense verb: yasiru.
You will also notice that the sentences preceded by these verbs are all nominal sentences. Before these verbs entered upon them, they were:
nizam-u al-barid-i ghayr-u maʿrufin
— The postal system is unknown.
al-dayf-u shabʿan-un
— The guest is satiated.
al-hilal-u badr-un
— The crescent is a full moon.
al-dabab-u kathif-un
— The fog is thick.
That is, they are sentences composed of a nominative mubtadaʾ and a nominative khabar. But as soon as these verbs entered upon them, the mubtadaʾ remained in the nominative — but the khabar became accusative. This is the family of kana and its sisters, also called al-afʿal al-naqisa (the incomplete verbs).
Why are the incomplete verbs called by this name?
Because they require a predicate (khabar) for the meaning to be complete. You cannot say: kana Muhammad — zalla al-dabab — asbaha al-rajul... without completing them with a khabar that clarifies their meaning. They are also called al-afʿal al-nasikha (the abrogating verbs) or al-nawasikh (abrogators), because they abrogate the ruling of the khabar — and therefore alter the iʿrab of the sentence they enter upon.
Meanings of Kana and Its Sisters
- — kana: indicates absolute time-marking ('was, was being').
- — asbaha: time-marking 'in the morning' ('became in the morning').
- — amsa: time-marking 'in the evening'.
- — zalla: time-marking 'during the day' ('continued throughout the day').
- — adha: time-marking 'in the forenoon'.
- — bata: time-marking 'at night' ('spent the night').
- — sara: indicates transformation (changing the noun into the predicate), e.g.: 'sara al-qutn-u nasijan' ('the cotton became fabric').
- — laysa: negation ('is not').
- — ma zala, ma bariha, ma infakka, ma fatiʾa: indicate continuity ('still / continues to be').
- — ma dama: indicates a duration ('as long as').
Iʿrab of Kana and Its Sisters
Operation of Kana and Its Sisters
For kana and its sisters to operate fully, certain specific conditions are required:
1 — The verbs kana, sara, laysa, asbaha, amsa, adha, zalla, bata operate without any condition — i.e., they always raise al-mubtadaʾ and put al-khabar in the accusative, e.g.:
kana al-matar-u ghaziran
— The rain was abundant.
asbaha al-sahir-u mutʿaban
— The one who stayed up became tired.
sara al-jawww-u jamilan
— The weather became beautiful.
laysa al-ghishsh-u maqbulan
— Cheating is not acceptable.
2 — The verbs zala, bariha, infakka, fatiʾa operate like kana only when joined to a negation or a prohibition, e.g.:
ma zala al-ʿaduww-u naqiman
— The enemy still bears a grudge.
ma infakka al-rajul-u nadiman
— The man has not ceased to be regretful.
la tazal mujtahidan
— Do not cease to be diligent.
3 — The verb dama requires that it be preceded by ma al-masdariyya al-zarfiyya (the adverbial infinitival 'ma'), because it converts the verb into a masdar preceded by 'duration', e.g.:
la akhruj-u min al-bayt-i ma dama al-matar-u nazilan
— I will not leave the house as long as the rain is falling.
la usahib-u-ka ma dum-ta mutakabbiran
— I will not befriend you as long as you remain arrogant.
Conjugation of Kana and Its Sisters
Kana and its sisters differ in their conjugability as follows:
- 1 — The incomplete verbs that operate in the past, present, and imperative, namely seven verbs: kana, asbaha, sara, amsa, adha, zalla, bata.
- 2 — The incomplete verbs that operate in the past and present: ma zala, ma bariha, ma infakka, ma fatiʾa.
- 3 — The incomplete verbs that operate only in the past: laysa, ma dama.
Question: The verb 'dama' is conjugated (dama, yadumu, dum), so how can we say it operates only in the past?
Answer: Because 'dama' on its own is a complete verb. We said the incomplete verb is the one preceded by 'ma'.
Types of the Predicate of Kana and Its Sisters
1 — A single word (singular, dual, or plural), e.g.:
kana al-tilmidh-u mujtahidan
— The pupil was diligent.
kana al-tilmidhani mujtahidayn
— The two pupils were diligent.
kana al-talamidh-u mujtahidina
— The pupils were diligent.
2 — A verbal clause, e.g.:
kana al-muʿallim-u yudarris-u al-talamidh
— The teacher was teaching the pupils.
3 — A nominal clause, e.g.:
al-fallah-u ʿamal-u-hu sharif
— The farmer's work is honorable.
4 — A prepositional phrase, e.g.:
laysa li-l-khaʾin-i damir
— The traitor has no conscience.
5 — An adverb, e.g.:
ma zala al-wafiyy-u ʿinda waʿd-i-hi
— The faithful one still keeps his promise.
Kana and Its Sisters and Their Position in the Sentence
The default rule is that kana and its sisters come first, then the noun, then the predicate. But there are cases of fronting and postposing as follows:
1 — It is permissible for the predicate to fall between kana (or its sisters) and their noun, e.g.:
kana kariman Muhammad
— Generous was Muhammad.
laysa sawaʾan ʿalim-un wa-jahul
— A scholar and an ignorant one are not equal.
2 — It is permissible for the predicate of kana (and its sisters) to come before them — except for laysa and ma dama — e.g.:
rahiman kana rasul-u Allah
— Compassionate was the Messenger of Allah.
mutmaʾinnan bata al-muʾmin
— Tranquil was the believer's night.
Examples of Kana and Its Sisters with Iʿrab
kana al-jawww-u jamilan
— The weather was beautiful.
kana: an incomplete past-tense verb fixed on fatha. al-jawww: ism kana in the nominative, marked by damma. jamilan: khabar kana in the accusative, marked by fatha.
ma zala al-matar-u nazilan
— The rain is still falling.
ma: a particle of negation. zala: an incomplete past-tense verb. al-matar: ism zala in the nominative, marked by damma. nazilan: khabar zala in the accusative, marked by fatha.
kun saburan
— Be patient!
kun: an incomplete imperative verb fixed on sukun; the ism of kana is a concealed pronoun, implied as 'anta'. saburan: khabar kana in the accusative, marked by fatha.
adhat al-samaʾ-u bahija
— The sky became radiant in the forenoon.
adhat: an incomplete past-tense verb; the taʾ is the sukun-bearing taʾ of the feminine, with no place in iʿrab. al-samaʾ: ism adha in the nominative, marked by damma. bahija: khabar adha in the accusative, marked by fatha.
laysa sawaʾan ʿalim-un wa-jahul
— A scholar and an ignorant one are not equal.
laysa: an incomplete past-tense verb. sawaʾan: a fronted khabar of laysa in the accusative, marked by fatha. ʿalim: a postponed ism of laysa in the nominative, marked by damma. wa-jahul: the waw — a conjunction; jahul — conjoined onto 'ʿalim'.
Examples of Kana and Its Sisters from the Quran
Allah Most High says:
— "And ever is your Lord competent." — Quran 25:54 (Sahih International)
kana: an incomplete past-tense verb fixed on fatha. rabbu-ka: ism kana in the nominative, marked by damma; the kaf is a pronoun of address. qadiran: khabar kana in the accusative, marked by fatha.
— "...but they will not cease to differ." — Quran 11:118 (Sahih International)
la: a particle of negation. yazaluna: an incomplete present-tense verb in the nominative, marked by retention of the nun; the waw is the ism of yazala in the nominative. mukhtalifina: khabar yazala in the accusative, marked by yaʾ because it is a sound masculine plural; the nun substitutes for the tanwin.
— "We will never cease being devoted to it [i.e., the calf]..." — Quran 20:91 (Sahih International)
lan: a particle of negation, accusative-governance, and future. nabraha: an incomplete present-tense verb in the accusative by 'lan'; its ism is an obligatorily concealed pronoun, implied as 'nahnu'. ʿalayhi: a prepositional phrase. ʿakifina: khabar nabraha in the accusative, marked by yaʾ because it is a sound masculine plural; the nun substitutes for the tanwin.
— "...and has enjoined upon me prayer and zakah as long as I remain alive." — Quran 19:31 (Sahih International)
ma: an infinitival particle. dumtu: an incomplete past-tense verb fixed on sukun; the taʾ in the position of nominative as the ism of ma dama. hayyan: khabar ma dama. The interpreted masdar is in the position of accusative as an adverbial of time.
Examples of Kana and Its Sisters from Poetry
— Al-Mutanabbi said:
[Al-Mutanabbi, classical poetry]: 'When you have an opinion, also possess resolve — for the corruption of opinion is to hesitate.'
— Tarafah ibn al-ʿAbd said:
[Tarafah, classical poetry]: 'I am not one who frequents the lowlands out of fear; but whenever the people seek aid, I aid them.'
— Maʿruf al-Rusafi said:
[Maʿruf al-Rusafi, classical poetry]: 'Humiliation has come to walk among them — like the walk of an emir, with them as servants around him.'
— Al-Samawʾal said:
[Al-Samawʾal, classical poetry]: 'Ask people — if you do not know — about us and them: a scholar and an ignorant one are not equal.'
— Al-Farazdaq said:
[Al-Farazdaq, classical poetry]: 'How shall it be when I pass by the dwelling of a people, and neighbors of ours who were noble?'
Questions and Answers about Kana and Its Sisters
Why are the incomplete verbs called by this name?
— Because they require a predicate for the meaning to be complete.
What are the sisters of kana?
— kana, asbaha, zalla, amsa, adha, bata, sara, laysa, ma dama, ma infakka, ma zala, ma fatiʾa, ma bariha.
What is the iʿrab function of kana and its sisters?
— They leave al-mubtadaʾ in the nominative (called their ism) and put al-khabar in the accusative (called their khabar).
What are the conditions for the operation of kana and its sisters?
— kana, sara, laysa, asbaha, amsa, adha, zalla, bata: operate without any condition. — zala, bariha, infakka, fatiʾa: operate like kana only when joined to a negation or a prohibition. — dama: requires that it be preceded by ma al-masdariyya al-zarfiyya.
Identify the noun (ism) and the predicate (khabar) in the following sentences:
kana Mahmud-un shujaʿan
— Mahmud was brave.
sara al-jawww-u baridan
— The weather became cold.
bata al-miskin-u jaʾiʿan
— The poor man spent the night hungry.
/ I think the answers do not need to be written out. We end here, and I hope the explanation has been clear. For any questions or assistance, please consult a teacher or grammar reference.